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WRITING
THE RESEARCH PAPER In between the choosing of a topic and the
final typing of the last revision lie a series of skills which, if learned
thoroughly, might well be the most important and most permanent academic
possession acquired in four years of college. Specifically, you need to learn
how to: delve deeply into a topic; find and select raw data; reflect,
speculate, and mediate upon implications and relationships; glimpse and
follow insights; establish logical
categories; organize an outline; think and write with clarity and precision;
and revise.
Make the writing of every paper an exercise to develop
these skills. Steps In Writing The Research Paper 1.
Choose your subject 2.
Narrow your subject 3.
Provide a focus for narrowing material 4.
Find references and select bibliography 5.
Gather notes 6.
Categorize notes 7.
Decide upon an approach and point of view to gain control over your material 8.
Draw up a detailed outline 9.
Write a detailed outline 10.
Make a clear copy 11.
Leave for a day 12.
Edit your work-go over you paper four times a. First, reposition paragraphs and
sentences b.
Second, add and delete material to achieve balance and to advance the stated
objective of your paper c.
Third, look to insert transitional words and phrases d.
Fourth, read the paper aloud 13.
Make a copy 14.
Know rules for using quotations 15.
Know rules for using footnotes 16.
Know how to make a bibliography Choosing Your Subject Choose
a subject which interests you. The
outstanding American expert on Tibet spends half of her time in Washington as
advisor to governmental agencies, yet she has never traveled beyond the
boundaries of the United States. when asked how she
became so well versed on Tibet, she answered, "I'm simply fascinated by
the subject, and have read everything I could get my hands on." A
research paper, then, is an opportunity to further your interest in some
subject or area. Narrowing Your Subject The
most common criticism of research papers is ,
"topic too broad." You may well wonder, "Well, how can I be
sure that I have sufficiently narrowed my topic?" A Cornell English
professor has this sure-fire method: put your subject through three
significant narrowings, i.e., moving from one
category to a class within a category, each time. For
example, here are some sample narrowings for papers
of 10 to 12 pages: 1.
Public opinion polls: accuracy of polls: the accuracy of such polls in
national elections: factors which determine the accuracy of public opinion
polls in national elections. 2.
The climate of opinion between World War I and World War II: the moral climate, etc.: the particular arguments involved in the
debate over Prohibition: the arguments for Prohibition used by the "Drys" in support of the 18th Amendment and their
arguments in the late 1920's and early 1930's to prevent repeal. 3.
Discrimination against African-Americans: Northern attitudes vs. Southern
attitudes: the particular geographical
distinction: how Mason and Dixon's Line became a line of demarcation. 4. The Civil War: crucial battles: one battle: Napoleonic strategy and
the battle of Fredricksburg. 5.
Comparative religion-two religions; Judaism and Christianity;
"salvation" in Judaism. Provide A Focus For Gathering
Material
To avoid the gross error of making your paper a mere
accumulation of facts, you must crystallize a genuine question, and your
facts must then be used to answer this question. Whether it can be definitely answered or not is
unimportant. A
detailed outline at this stage is not usually possible since you are not sure
of the material that you will uncover. Nevertheless, the specific question in
mind will give you the needed focus for gathering pertinent material. Select A Bibliography College libraries, or any good library for
that matter, contain many valuable sources of reference material. It will pay
you in the long run to find out just what these sources are and how you can
learn to use them with the maximum efficiency. Don't make the mistake of
waiting until just a few days before your paper is due to make your first
acquaintance with the many reference books your library contains. A few
minutes spent in the library at the beginning of the term, when you are not
under pressure to finish a paper, will help you in the future. The "backbone" of all libraries
is the card catalogue system, which tells you not only what books the library
possesses, but also where you can find them. Look, therefore, through the
library's card file and record all pertinent references on separate 3x5 slips
of paper. Efficiency will be increased if all the
information is systematically recorded in the following ways: A.
Record the name of the library where the reference is located. Many
universities have special libraries located in separate schools on campus. B.
Record the short title of your subject. This will be important when working
on current and subsequent papers. C.
Record the library call number. You will not have to refer to the card
catalogue whenever you want to use the same book again. D.
Record accurately the full reference in exactly the same form that you plan
to use in the bibliographic portion of your paper. This insures your
including all the essential parts of the reference; also, the correct form
will make easier the mechanics of typing. E.
Record briefly your opinion of the reference; e.g.,
"not useful-does not discuss principles"; "excellent for case
studies of poor readers at the secondary-school level." Another valuable source of reference
material which is somewhat like the card catalogue system is the periodical
indexes, such as the Reader's Guide and
Poole's Index To Periodical
Literature. Often, there will be special indexes which list new books and
articles for one field; for example, the Psychological
Abstracts for the field of psychology, and the Educational Index for the field of education. Of course, do not
overlook the general encyclopedias, such as the Britannica Americana and the New
International, nor the more specialized works like the Encyclopedia of Banking and Finance and Who's Who In America. Finally, there are the yearbooks, of which
the World Almanac and the Book of Facts are notable examples. One frequently overlooked source of
information is the personal interview. Every campus and town has its share of
experts and authorities. If possible, arrange for an interview and be
prepared to take notes. Gathering Notes 1.
Use note paper of uniform size. The 3x5 slips of paper are suggested because
they are uniform, less bulky, and less expensive than cards. 2.
Use only one side of the slip, and then record only one topic on each slip. 3.
Identify the reference information on the note slips by writing the author's
last name, or the title of the reference in the top left corner of the note
slip. The page number or numbers should appear in parentheses at the end of
the item of information. This system will enable you to find quickly again
the exact page if further information is needed. 4.
Write notes in your own words. This will help insure that you understand what
you are reading. Furthermore, you will be putting the information into a form
which can be used in your paper. Always distinguish clearly between your
words and the author's. Failure to do so might lead you unwittingly into
plagiarism. 5.
Just as in taking notes on a textbook, always skim the article or chapter you
are reading before writing the notes. 6.
Notations should be concise, yet sufficiently detailed to provide an accurate
meaning. 7.
Taking time to write notations neatly will avoid the time and frustration of
later deciphering. 8.
Use ink. Notes written in pencil will become blurred through handling and
sorting. 9.
If you need direct quotations, use only a few of the outstanding phrases or
sentences. Most students tend to quote too much and too often. 10.
Abbreviate only the common words, otherwise much
time will be lost in "figuring out" unfamiliar
"shorthand." 11.
When ideas and insights occur, write them on separate note slips under the
caption "my own." Categorizing Notes Having recorded only one topic on each
slip mow permits you to arrange your slips into separate topic stacks. Also,
having written on only one side of the slip enables you to see your full
notes without turning slips back and forth. Now you will appreciate that you
really were not "wasting" paper when you left the reverse side of
each slip blank. Deciding On An Approach To gain control over your material the
crux of some matter must be dug out and presented in a way that illuminates
the issue; some analysis or appraisal ought to be given. A reader who is
presented with an assortment of facts-no matter how neatly arranged-asks,
"So what?" and rightly so. You ought to have clearly in mind before
you begin writing what you want this material to add up to. Remember, the
predication is as important as the "subject." Drawing Up A Detailed Outline Only by working out a detailed outline can
you order and control your data so that it can be marshaled to support your
stated objective. Worked into the outline, also, should be your approach,
point of view, and strategy. In the process of writing an outline, you
will acquire the prerequisite of all good writing-you will be forced to
"think through" your material. This "thinking through" is
what the professional writers call "digesting" your random facts.
Once you do this, then you will quite naturally, as you write, draw from a
reservoir of facts rather than stringing together a compartmentalized series
of "snippets" which are usually someone else's paraphrased
words. As a final "bonus" effect, the detailed outline will save
you time during the revision stage since your facts will be in the right
order from the beginning. Writing The First Draft With the outline before you, write as
rapidly and spontaneously as possible. Recording your thoughts as they go
through your mind will help to insure continuity. It is when you stop to
ponder alternatives that gaps in continuity occur. Though this manner of
writing often results in too much material, don't be concerned because it is
easier to cut than to add. Make A Clear Copy
The first draft is usually rough-full of deletions,
additions, and directions which are understandable only to the writer. If
left in this state for even a day, much time might be lost in trying to
recall exactly how you meant to blend in some of the hastily written interlineation. Furthermore, if you retype or rewrite
while the material is still very fresh, some spontaneous revision may take
place. The result, of course, will be a clear copy which will be ready for
revision after a "cooling off" period of a day or so. Leave For A Day
The "cooling off" period is important. During
the writing stage, your mind is so full of associations with the words which
you have written that you are liable to impose clarity and step-by-step
sequences where these do not, in fact, exist; that is, your mind can fill in
and bridge the gaps. After your mind has dropped some of these
associations, then when you read your manuscript ,
you will have to "read" the words to gain meaning. You can now
easily spot the glaring errors-you can be critically objective. The Importance of Editing Your Own
Work
The editing function is one of the few really important
big things that you can learn in college-the ability to view your own
production with enough courage to anticipate (and be concerned about) the
potential reader's reaction. This means polishing, boiling down ideas,
struggling to say things clearer and clearer, perhaps starting over, or
writing even 3 or 4 drafts. Your Final Copy 1.
In preparing the finished draft of your research paper, use only one side of
white paper. Although a few instructors will specify precisely what size
paper to use, the most commonly used paper measures 81/2 x 11 inches. 2.
Type your paper without any strike-overs (erase
errors thoroughly
and neatly) and be sure to double space. 3.
Leave generous margins at the top, bottom and about a one and one-half inch
margin on both sides to provide room for the instructor's comments. 4.
Put your dictionary to good use by checking spellings and divisions of words you
are not sure of. 5.
Hand in the paper on time. It is not uncommon for instructors to deduct
points for late papers. |