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Lectures and Directions for Week Three
(January 15-19)
- Think about a topic you would like to work on for your Term Paper. The details are
included in "Research paper Guidelines" in homepage as well as on NC # 5.
When you have decided on the topic, answer the questions on Term paper Proposal (NC # 5)
to the best of your ability.
Reading for this week:
From Elements of Argument:
- This week's lecture is on Chapter 9--"Writing an Argumentative Paper" (page
337)--which is given below.
- Skim through Chapter 10--"Researching an Argumentative Paper" (page 358
onwards)--which teaches you how to write a research paper--how to quote, use in-text
citations, arrange Works Cited reference list etc. in MLA (Modern Language Association)
style. It also tells you how to write an "Annotated Bibliography" (page
380) and how to cite your sources--"MLA System for Citing Publications" (page
381-390).
- You should pay special attention to the Sample Research Paper starting on page 391,
which will be beneficial to you not only to write your seminar papers but also the final
term paper. It is annotated for you to understand the basic elements of a research
paper.
From A Writer's Reference:
- For additional help with the Citation format etc. look into A Writer's
Reference or the NortonConnect Handbook information on
Research Papers.
What’s due in Week 3:
(a) Term Paper Proposals and (b) Seminar 1 final draft, both due
on Monday, Jan. 15 for grade
Lecture
"Writing an Argumentative Paper"
Chapter 9 (page 337)
Elements of Argument
Before you read this chapter, you should have a clear understanding of
what Argument means and how to read critically from Chapters 1 and 2. Even though
you have not read the chapters prior to this one, you should, by now, have a grasp of what
a claim is, or how you need to support
your claim etc.
Now it is time to work through organizing your claim, your supporting
evidences, writing your essay, and revising it effectively. If you follow the
guidelines carefully, you will be better prepared to Argue your point of view.
You HAVE to read the complete chapter for complete understanding of the
process, but like before I am highlighting the important information from this chapter.
Finding and Appropriate Topic:
The first step is to choose your topic carefully. In most cases,
the topic will be given to you. you need to understand first why the topic is worth
arguing about. For example, in the first Seminar topic, you needed to clearly
identify the reasons why we are discussing the point that grading is a matter of some
though. You, as student yourself, are often affected by the grading system
sometimes. it is not always fair, neither is it consistent from teacher to teacher.
Therefore,, your concern is whether we need to change the system or not.
After that, you need to look at what Paul Goodman is saying, whether his alternative
suggestion is a viable option or not.
The assignments are given to you, and that limits your choice of a
topic. However, normally your assignments are "open ended," meaning the
subject is given to you, but you can choose your own point of view and think whether you
agree or disagree with what the author is saying.
Your subject should interest you. Most of the issues that
you will be asked to write your papers on, are of interest to all of us--as the
twenty-first century citizens of the U.S. Often, you may not have sufficient
knowledge of the topic/subject. This is when you need to do read the assigned
selections (which you will do through the text book), do some research 9through the
Internet or through other sources), and depend on what little you know from your personal
knowledge, interests, and concerns. You may think that you do not have enough
knowledge of the subject, but believe me--YOU DO! All you need to do is to think and
focus your attention to the issue in question. most of the topics will also deal
with current concerns, situations we are all affected by.
Invention Strategies:
- The word "Invention" comes from Aristotle, the ancient Greek
philosopher and scholar. In his definition of Rhetoric (the art of
Communication and Argumentation), he says it is a process of "finding and
discovering (and utilizing) in a given situation, the available means of
persuasion" (emphasis mine).
- When you argue your claim, it is your responsibility to find, or discover,
or invent the "available means of persuasion," any information
that will help rationalize and support your claim.
- You may invent/discover your supporting evidences through (a) conversations (that is why
the discussion board is important), (b) disputes with others on current issues, (c) the
media (one of the best sources today, but of course you need to filter the information you
receive through the media), (d) reading, and (e) research.
- Fortunately for the student today, "nearly every human activity includes its share
of disagreement" (338).
Evaluating Possible Topics:
- Aristotle calls this process "Arrangement" or the process
that helps in deciding how you will present your claim and ideas to your audience.
To be an effective communicator, you need identify clearly your Stance or
role as a writer. A writer's(your) stance includes:
- The Thesis/Claim
- The Purpose of your argument (Not just to receive a good grade, but to
show the significance of the concern/issue, analyze the various approaches to the issue by
others, and perhaps suggest a more effective solution. This is where you come in as
a writer, when you add something new to the topic that has already been
discussed by other writers.)
- The Strategies--that will be most effective in presenting your opinion
- Style (your attitude towards the issue--agree? disagree? like?
dislike? and the tone you take or the language you uses etc.)
- Rhetorical Devices (Rhetorical devices are Cause/Effect, Illustration,
Comparison/Contrast, and definitely Argumentation. You may have learned these
strategies of development in English 101. If you need some review, A Writer's
Reference will help you.)
- The Audience (I could not stress enough the importance of knowing your
audience when you are writing an argumentative paper.)
- Guess your audience's needs: (By the way, I am not your audience; I am only your
editor. Your audience/reader is out there: your classmates, perhaps; or the
community you live in; or someone who is also interested in the topic and wants to know
what other people are thinking about on this particular issue)
- Who is my audience? I could be a real reader, or hypothetical)
- Will my audience be interested in what I am saying?
- Is my audience well-informed on this topic? If he/she is well-informed, then
how much should I have to explain to clarify my position? If he/she is not, then how
much extra information should I use in my essay so everything is clear?*****
- Your audience may be sympathetic or unsympathetic to your opinion. If
unsympathetic, then your responsibility is to convince the reader, or persuade him/her to
see it your way
- You topic will normally be controversial, with two sides of the issue. That means,
the topic is debatable. What you need to ask yourself: Which side do I belong in
this issue? "Can a case be made for the opposing view?" (339). How
extensive will my argument should be to be convincing enough? (In this case, you do
have a limit to the required length of the essay.)
- Your thesis cannot be too narrow or too general/broad. (From your experience in
writing essays for English 101, I assume you know what I am
talking about.)
*****(NOTE: Your audience may not be familiar with the
essays/articles you are dealing with from your text. Therefore, it is always a good
idea to give a clear enough summary of the article from your text in your Introductory
paragraph. That would act as a good background information before you bring in your
thesis statement/claim.)
- To learn more about how to guess the audience's needs, review the questions given under
the section "To This Point" (page 339-340)
Defining the Issues:
Preparing an Initial Outline:
This is an effective method of initially organizing your thought and putting down your
ideas on paper in "an order of priority" (340). Of course, as you work on
your drafts, you will find yourself changing a lot of the information, reasoning, and
evidences you may have thought about in your initial outline. However, it is always
a good idea to have some kind of outline in place. It helps with your focus.
NOTE: Your text has a great sample topic "Coed Bathrooms"
(340) and how it can be shaped into a manageable thesis/claim by practicing the steps of
Invention and Arrangement. Please skim through the steps for clarification.
Organizing the Material:
This is one of the most important elements of your essay. Your organization of an
argumentative essay will be very similar to the essays you wrote in English 101.
An effective Introduction with:
- Some background information or hook or attention-grabber. The best possible
technique is to provide the reader with the background/summary of the essay/article you
are responding to; or a general overview of why the subject/topic/issue is important; what
should the readers be concerned about; what some of the ramifications are; what some of
the solutions are etc.
- Your claim as the thesis statement
Three or four Body Paragraphs where;
- You will provide reasons for the claim you are making with adequate supporting
details/evidences
- Each body paragraph will begin with a topic sentence (with smooth transition from the
previous paragraph), supporting details which should be developed with specific examples,
illustrations, quotations and expert opinions from research
- A clear concluding statement
- Your supporting details should be based on specific
information, not generalized ideas or thoughts. Specific details are taken from
- Your own life experiences or knowledge of the topic at hand: Let us say
that you are writing an essay on smoking, and you claim is that smoking is definitely
hazardous to health. You can use the evidences from your own life: your father may
have smoked and later in his life he developed a smoke-related illness, or if something
similar happened to your friends. All these examples would help in showing the
dangers related to smoking. The examples will also act as specific
details--real-life examples from your own experience/knowledge. In such situations,
using the first-person point of view I is
perfectly acceptable in a seminar paper. After all, you are expressing what
you know and your personal attitude towards the issue/topic at hand.
- Supporting details could also be drawn from expert opinion based on research,
so quoting--of course sparingly--from the works of authors in the text or from research on
your own--is one of the best ways to develop your argument.
- Other ways you can use supporting details is to use information from your personal
observation--TV programs, statistical information, movies, other courses you have
taken or are taking now, and specifically conversations with your class mates or friends
etc.
- To do a good job in using information from other sources, you need to master the MLA
(Modern Language Association) style of documentation. You should review (a) the Punctuation
chapter (pages 267-273) to learn about how to quote and (b) the MLA
Documentation chapter (pages 324-360) to learn about how to incorporate in-text
citations and works-cited formats in A Writer's Handbook.
A Conclusion that will:
- End the essay, repeating and reinforcing some of the main points you made in your
essay, only with different wording
- Restate your thesis in a different way
- Leave the readers with some additional thought on the issue. A conclusion
brings a closure to your thought process
Defending the Main Idea:
- You may agree with the author's point of view. That is still an argument.
- If you agree, you need to specify why you agree; what new suggestions you can make or
suggest besides the author's suggestions or reasons.
Refuting the Opposing View:
- When you say "I disagree with the author," once again you need to give your
own reasons for your disagreement, with supporting evidences--complete with examples and
illustrations/examples to show why you disagree
- You need to show that the other viewpoint is "less credible" (344)
- You need to clearly understand the author's attitude. Only then, your own point of
view will be clear to you
- When you decide to REFUTE an argument/claim, do the following
- Read the argument in the text carefully, "noting all points with which you
disagree" (344)
- Summarize the author's points briefly to familiarize your readers with what the author
is assuming or suggesting
- Choose only the main points from the essay you are responding to and ignore the rest
(you cannot argue for or against every point the author is making)
- For more details, read through the detailed discussion on pages 344-345, under
subheading "Refuting the Opposing View"
Finding the Middle Ground:
- often you may both agree or disagree with an author. in that case, early in your
own essay
- Explain the opposing points/position
- Explain that the opposing points are not exclusive of each other
- Explain why you are going both ways, that you are willing to come to a conclusion based
on both sides of the issue. In other words, you are "negotiating."
- Point out that the opposing sides--even though controversial--still need to be
acknowledged
- Provide all necessary evidences that would support the idea that your readers should
accept a middle ground for the best possible solution
- Your solution should offer a "common ground" in reaching a
"settlement" (346)
Presenting the Stock Issue:
- You may also state the issue as a problem, analyze
the problem, and suggest a solution
- This method is especially effective when you are suggesting a policy change (like you
may have done in Seminar 1--abolish the current grading system for the benefit of the
student and for a better educational system that the current one)
Ordering materials for Emphasis:
- Organizing your claim, evidences, and solution to reflect the issue and the need to make
some changes or strengthen the current methods is very essential
- Read through the rest of this section for a sample example
Considering Scope and Audience:
- First, review the specifics of the writing assignment: the length of the essay, the
prompt given etc
- Scope--your thesis/claim should be manageable within the required length of the essay.
Do not promise too much or too little in your thesis statement/claim
- Make your essay Persuasive enough for the audience you have chosen. here, you need
to guess how much the audience knows, how much more the audience needs to know; what age
group the audience belongs to; the audience's breadth of knowledge, religious beliefs,
cultural assumptions, and whether you want the audience to be convinced be persuaded
(stronger than convincing)
- Change your stance accordingly
- Look through the questions on page 349 for additional help.
Writing:
Beginning the Paper:
- Think what position you are going to take. Do not begin writing until you have
some idea of the way your claim will be developed
- Begin with a possible Introduction, by providing the reader with adequate background
information (a summary of the essay/issue you are responding to), or by selecting an
important passage or quotation by the author of the essay you are responding to, and by
inviting the readers to your claim
- now that you are in English 201, you should be more creative and bold with your thesis
statement, and not apply the straight-forward assertion like "I agree" or
"I disagree" with three points/subheadings for you three body paragraphs.
- Never make an announcement like "In this essay, I am going to say why I agree (or
disagree) with the author . . " This is the most boring thesis statement you
can write. Be more creative and interesting
- Remember that you first paragraph may make or break the essay. You readers may or
may not want to go on after reading your first paragraph
Guidelines for Good Writing:
- Same rules apply for an argument as the ones you learned in Eng. 101.
- Your style should be simple, clear, and authentic. You should express your opinion
and support through your own voice. Do not try to impress your readers by using
stylized or sophisticated language. Be yourself.
- On the other hand, you should avoid slang and colloquial usage.
- Good/authentic style follow the same rules/guidelines:
- Sentence structures should be a mixture of long and short clauses
- Standard vocabulary should be used; special terms can be used only when
necessary/appropriate
- Do not repeat or PAD unnecessarily. Often students who are at a
loss with ideas repeat themselves or add unnecessary/irrelevant materials
- Do not use false, illogical, exaggerations, or too much emotional appeal.
In each of these ways, you are trying to create a false impression or presenting
fallacies, which are not appreciated by the readers
- Your paragraphs should be adequately developed with enough development
(specific examples, evidences, reasons, and solutions) as the length of the essay permits.
They should be balanced. For example, do not write a long
Introduction, and two very short Body paragraphs, and a long Conclusion, or any other
variation of the pattern.
- Using the first-person point of view ("I") is acceptable although it should be
used "judiciously" (353). On the other hand, DO NOT use the second-person
point of view ("YOU") unless it is really necessary, for example in some kind of
direct instruction.
- Using the third-person point of view (anything else besides I or YOU) is always
acceptable (examples like people, students, men, women, children, etc.)
- When using an Indefinite pronoun like "each" or "everyone' or
everybody" be careful to maintain proper subject-verb and pronoun-antecedent
agreement
- Do not make "absolute generalizations," statements--"containing words
such as all or every" (353) because not all situations are the same
and not everyone will be affected by the situations under scrutiny. using qualifiers
like "most of the time" or "in general" or "often" or
"occasionally," to name a few, is always preferred
- Your argument/explanation/reasoning should be credible. Do not try to win over
your audience by presenting some bizarre reasons, too much emotional examples, or heavily
religious explanations. Readers often see such an attempt as vain and unconvincing
- Your essay should be COHERENT, UNIFIED, FOCUSSED, and WELL-DEVELOPED.
Revising:
- The final step to writing an argument is to edit and revise carefully. This is
where the group discussions and editing online would help you. In a normal class, we
spend a lot of time and effort on this process. Students help each other out.
Since you are not in such a classroom atmosphere, you should be extra careful to edit and
revise your own essay or get editorial help through the discussion board.
- To help you editing your own essay (or edit someone else's essay), the text provides you
with some helpful questions on page 357--"Review Checklist".
Don't ignore these suggestions.
Preparing the Manuscript:
Review page 356 for necessary information about the layout of your essay and how to
improve it.
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